Navigating Sociological Research
Sociological Research
Sociologists are concerned with developing a picture of social life that is reliable and consistent.
A central goal of all sociological research is to propose and examine theories.
Social problems can be studied with a variety of research methods and from different theoretical perspectives.
THEORY
A model of reality used to explain how or why something happens
Hypothesis
A statement of the theory or a tentative explanation for an observation that can be tested through research
Generalizations may lead to more theories.
A research study is used to prove the hypothesis valid or invalid.
Observations are analyzed to derive general statements about the events observed empirical generalizations.
Research generates findings (observations) that are used to test the hypothesis.
NAMES WORTH KNOWING
Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) established sociology as a science by defining rules of the sociological method and calling for analysis of rates of behaviour.
Samuel A. Stouffer (1900–1960) advanced the statistical analysis of complex relationships between variables in tables, a key practice in the development of large-scale quantitative social research.
Anselm Leonard Strauss (1916–1996) and Barney Glaser (b. 1930) developed grounded theory, a qualitative method in which the researcher begins with no preconceived ideas to prove or disprove.
Dorothy Smith (b. 1926) developed institutional ethnography, a method of inquiry used to explore the structure of people’s everyday lives, and standpoint theory, based on the idea that an individual’s social location influences her/his perspectives.
Feminist Research Methods
Tend to favour qualitative data from oral histories and in-depth interviews that create a connection between researcher and subject
- Participatory action research (community-based research) community members are involved in the design and implementation of research used to examine local issues
- Standpoint theory—the view that any interpretation of social issues is subjective, influenced by the particular perspective (standpoint) of the researcher
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Concerned primarily with characteristics that can be measured or expressed in terms of numbers
- Typically concerned with precise hypotheses, reproducible findings, and features or conditions capable of taking on different values (variables)
- Especially useful at answering what and who questions
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Used to gather information that cannot be expressed in terms of numbers
- Typically concerned with studying and understanding people and human behaviour in different situations
- Especially useful in addressing how questions
SURVEYS
A series of questions used to investigate the experience or opinions of a group of people
- Includes interviews and questionnaires
The Quantitative Survey
- Tends to be structured—a standard set of questions in the same form and order
- Involves collecting identical kinds of data from a sample of the total population, then extrapolating the data to form general theories about the total population
Four levels of measurement
- Nominal—consist of named categories to denote difference (e.g. male/female)
- Ordinal—can be arranged on a scale from least to most (e.g. big / bigger / biggest)
- Interval—uses measures spaced at equal distances (intervals) (e.g. IQ test scores)
- Ratio—interval scales in which zero has statistical significance (e.g. height, weight, income)
The Qualitative Survey, or Interview
Used to gather information that cannot be expressed in terms of numbers
- Tends to be unstructured—more flexible, with open-ended questions
- Involves exploring a broad range of factors, such as the thoughts and feelings of study participants
- Personal, one-on-one interviews—require the interviewer to establish a rapport with the study participant
- Focus groups—allow the researcher to question a group about their thoughts and concerns
Sampling
Most research involves the study of samples, not entire populations
- Population—the set of all people who share a specific characteristic of interest to the researcher
- Sample—a small number of people drawn from the population of interest
The Experiment
- Research procedure taking place under regulated conditions in an isolated setting to make a discovery, test a hypothesis, or demonstrate a known fact
- Research design is concerned with testing the proposition that X (independent variable) causes Y (dependent variable)
- Variable—a factor or characteristic likely to vary or change
- Independent variable—a variable thought to affect the dependent variable
Other Quantitative Methods
- Quasi-experiment—compares people's behaviours before and after experimental treatment, without randomly selecting or matching subjects or controlling changes in the environment
- Correlational analysis—measures the concurrent relationship between two phenomena (cross-sectional analysis) or associated changes in two phenomena (longitudinal analysis)
- Single-case analysis—in-depth examination of a single example of a class of phenomena
Ethnographic Research
Attempts to understand a culture (or subculture) from the point of view of a group insider
- Depends on field observation—in situ, naturalistic, and unobtrusive observation
Document Analysis
Original written records provide data about the activities/beliefs of a group not otherwise available to the researcher
- Includes speeches, books, and essays by eminent figures; parliamentary debates; magazines; and art
- Relies heavily on discourse analysis—an investigation into written and spoken language to learn about the hidden beliefs and intentions of the writer/speaker
Methods of Analysis
- Content analysis—quantifies (codes) large amounts of qualitative data for hypothesis testing
- Grounded theory—inductive approach designed to generate theories from data, rather than using data to confirm or disprove hypotheses
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